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Under 14 CFR 91.205, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) specifies the minimum powered civil aircraft instruments and equipment required for flight under Day VFR, Night VFR, and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Mastering 91.205 regulations, memory mnemonics (A TOMATO FLAMES, FLAPS, GRABCARD), and inoperative equipment procedures under 91.213 is essential for passing FAA Private Pilot (PAR) and Commercial Pilot (CAX) Airman Knowledge Tests and oral practical exams.
Checked against: Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Part 91 Section 91.205 (amended 2026) and FAA-H-8083-25C (PHAK Chapter 9).
| Letter | Required Instrument / Equipment Item | Regulatory Standard / Rule Details |
|---|---|---|
| A | Airspeed Indicator | Required for all powered civil aircraft (91.205(b)(1)) |
| T | Tachometer | For each engine (91.205(b)(2)) |
| O | Oil Pressure Gauge | For each engine using pressure system (91.205(b)(3)) |
| M | Magnetic Direction Indicator | Magnetic compass (91.205(b)(4)) |
| A | Altimeter | Sensible adjustable altimeter (91.205(b)(5)) |
| T | Temperature Gauge | For each liquid-cooled engine (91.205(b)(6)) |
| O | Oil Temperature Gauge | For each air-cooled engine (91.205(b)(7)) |
| F | Fuel Gauge Indicator | Indicating quantity in each tank (91.205(b)(8)) |
| L | Landing Gear Position Indicator | If aircraft has retractable landing gear (91.205(b)(9)) |
| A | Anti-Collision Light System | Approved aviation red or white for aircraft certified after March 11, 1996 (91.205(b)(11)) |
| M | Manifold Pressure Gauge | For each altitude engine / constant-speed propeller (91.205(b)(10)) |
| E | Emergency Locator Transmitter | ELT compliant with 91.207 (91.205(b)(12)) |
| S | Safety Belts & Shoulder Harnesses | Approved safety belt and harness for occupants >2 yrs old (91.205(b)(13-14)) |
| Letter | Additional Night VFR Equipment | Rule & Operational Requirement |
|---|---|---|
| F | Fuses | One spare set of fuses, or three spare fuses of each kind required (91.205(c)(1)) |
| L | Landing Light | If aircraft is operated for hire (91.205(c)(2)) |
| A | Anti-Collision Light System | Approved aviation red or white anti-collision lights (91.205(c)(3)) |
| P | Position Lights | Navigation position lights (red left, green right, white tail) (91.205(c)(4)) |
| S | Source of Electrical Energy | Adequate generator or alternator for all installed electrical equipment (91.205(c)(5)) |
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Section 91.205 dictates the mandatory minimum flight instruments and equipment required for operating powered civil aircraft holding standard U.S. airworthiness certificates.
No person may operate a powered civil aircraft unless that aircraft contains the operational equipment prescribed for the specific category of flight being conducted: Day Visual Flight Rules (Day VFR), Night Visual Flight Rules (Night VFR), or Instrument Flight Rules (IFR).
Importantly, Section 91.205 represents the baseline statutory requirement. An aircraft’s Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS), Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) / Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) Kinds of Operations Equipment List (KOEL), or Airworthiness Directives (ADs) may impose additional required equipment beyond 91.205.
When evaluating aircraft airworthiness prior to flight, the pilot in command is legally responsible under 14 CFR 91.3 for ensuring that every instrument required by 91.205 is installed, functioning properly, and inspected in accordance with Part 91 maintenance rules.
To memorize the 13 required items for Day VFR flight under 14 CFR 91.205(b), aviation candidates use the popular memory device A TOMATO FLAMES.
Each item must be operational prior to takeoff unless the aircraft is operated under an approved Minimum Equipment List (MEL) or inoperative equipment procedures under 14 CFR 91.213(d).
Key details candidates frequently encounter on FAA exams include:
For night VFR operations, 14 CFR 91.205(c) requires ALL Day VFR items (A TOMATO FLAMES) PLUS the additional equipment remembered by the acronym FLAPS.
Position Lights: Navigation lights (red on the left wingtip, green on the right wingtip, white on the tail) must be illuminated from sunset to sunrise.
Landing Light: An electric landing light is ONLY legally required by 91.205(c)(2) if the aircraft is being operated FOR HIRE (such as flight instruction carrying a student or commercial passenger-carrying flights). If flying night VFR for personal use, a landing light is recommended but not mandatory under Part 91.
Fuses: Spare fuses equal to one full spare set or three spare fuses of each required amperage rating accessible to the pilot in flight.
For Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) operations, 14 CFR 91.205(d) mandates all Day and Night VFR equipment PLUS the specialized gyroscopic and navigation instruments remembered by the acronym GRABCARD.
Generator or Alternator: Adequate electrical power source to support installed IFR avionics and battery charging.
Radios: Navigational and communication equipment suitable for the route to be flown and instrument approach procedures to be executed.
Attitude Indicator: Gyroscopic artificial horizon displaying pitch and bank attitude.
Ball: Slip-skid indicator (inclinometer) to coordinate rudder inputs.
Clock: Digital or sweep-second hand clock installed and operable in the aircraft.
Altimeter: Sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure setting.
Rate-of-Turn Indicator: Turn coordinator or turn-and-bank indicator displaying rate of turn.
Directional Gyro: Gyroscopic heading indicator providing stable directional alignment.
In addition to the instrument equipment requirements of 91.205, aircraft operated under Part 91 must satisfy recurring airworthiness inspection requirements for pitot-static and transponder systems before entering controlled airspace or flying IFR.
14 CFR 91.411 (Altimeter System and Altitude Reporting Equipment Tests): No person may operate an airplane in controlled airspace under IFR unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months, each static pressure system, altimeter instrument, and automatic altitude reporting system has been tested and inspected.
14 CFR 91.413 (ATC Transponder Tests and Inspections): No person may use an ATC transponder or ADS-B Out system specified in 91.215 or 91.225 unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months, that transponder has been tested and inspected by an authorized repair station.
Flight schools and general aviation operators often ask how inoperative equipment deferrals differ between aircraft with a Minimum Equipment List (MEL) and those operating under 14 CFR 91.213(d).
An MEL is a precise, FAA-approved document tailored to a specific aircraft tail number that allows operation with specific inoperative items under defined conditions and relief procedures. If an aircraft has an approved MEL issued by the local FSDO, the pilot MUST use the MEL. 91.213(d) cannot be used as an alternative.
For small, non-turbine general aviation aircraft without an MEL, 14 CFR 91.213(d) permits flying with inoperative equipment if the item is not required by 91.205, the POH KOEL, Airworthiness Directives, or the aircraft’s Type Certificate Data Sheet. The item must be safely deactivated or removed, and placarded INOPERATIVE by the pilot or mechanic.
When an instrument or item of equipment is discovered to be inoperative prior to flight, pilots must follow the four-step decision sequence under 14 CFR 91.213(d) to determine if the aircraft remains airworthy:
Step 1: Check if the aircraft has an FAA-approved Minimum Equipment List (MEL). If an MEL exists, follow MEL deferral procedures.
Step 2: If no MEL exists, check if the inoperative item is part of the Day VFR required equipment listed in 14 CFR 91.205.
Step 3: Check if the item is required by the aircraft’s Equipment List or Kinds of Operations Equipment List (KOEL) in the POH, or by an Airworthiness Directive (AD).
Step 4: If the item is NOT required by 91.205, KOEL, POH, or AD, the item must be either removed (and weight and balance updated) OR deactivated and placarded "INOPERATIVE" by the pilot or mechanic.
FAA Airman Knowledge Tests (PAR, CAX, Instrument Rating IRA) regularly test 91.205 scenarios to evaluate candidate decision-making. Examiners on practical test oral exams will present scenario-based scenarios involving broken instruments during preflight inspections.
Common trick questions include asking whether a landing light is required for a solo night cross-country (No, not operated for hire), whether an altimeter must be sensitive adjustable (Yes, with a barometric subscale), or how an inoperative instrument must be treated if no MEL is present (Must be deactivated or removed, and placarded INOPERATIVE).
Candidates should practice tracing inoperative equipment decisions through the POH equipment list and 91.205 rules until the process becomes second nature.
No. Under 14 CFR 91.205(c)(2), an electric landing light is only required during night VFR if the aircraft is operated for hire (carrying passengers or providing paid flight instruction).
The acronym is A TOMATO FLAMES: Airspeed indicator, Tachometer, Oil pressure gauge, Magnetic compass, Altimeter, Temperature gauge, Oil temperature gauge, Fuel gauge, Landing gear position indicator, Anti-collision lights, Manifold pressure gauge, ELT, and Safety belts/harnesses.
Under 14 CFR 91.213(d), verify the item is not required by 91.205, the POH/KOEL, or ADs. If not required, have the item deactivated or removed, placard it "INOPERATIVE", and determine that flight can be made safely.
Anti-collision lights (aviation red or white) are required for day VFR flight for powered aircraft with a U.S. airworthiness certificate issued after March 11, 1996.
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